England

England is a country situated in the North West of Europe and shares its border with  Wales and Scotland. It has access to the Channel, the North Sea and the Atlantic ocean. It's a part of the United Kingdom.

In Countryhumans, as the other members of the  UK are, he is still in his shade, however, he is probably a tiny bit more popular than the rest, being the biggest country in the union.

He is most commonly confused with the United Kingdom. Don't be fooled. England is a country in the United Kingdom. The United Kingdom is the United Kingdom of England, Scotland, Wales and N. Ireland.

Appearance
Similar to most, or all, other characters of Countryhumans, England is depicted with the flag of England as their face. Their skin is usually solidly white, red, or striped with the two colours, depending on the artist's preference. He is most often seen in casual-wear, but he also occasionally wears suits/tuxedos, similar to the United Kingdom due to them sharing the most stereotypes, though it is probably most likely because the UK is often mistaken for England.

Female England is most likely going to be seen in a dress, tank-top, possibly a hoodie, or clothes similar to the UK's female appearance.

Both genders are sometimes drawn with glasses, though this is unusual.

Personality
Unlike the United Kingdom, England usually shows a much posher, colder, darker and more presumed personality, especially with its enemies whom it considers "inferior" and usually speaks very badly of them. Nevertheless, England is quiet, well mannered, appreciates politeness and has a love for sarcasm and great wit. England normally enjoys a wide variety of sports such as football, cricket, rugby and river racing.

Interests

 * Tea
 * Football
 * Cricket
 * Rugby
 * Comedies
 * Nature
 * Gardening
 * Train spotting
 * Countryside walks

Flag meaning
The English flag is a mixture between Saint George's Cross, also called the Cross of Saint George and a simple white background. The association of the red cross as an emblem of England can be traced back as far as the Middle Ages, and it was added as a design component to the Union Jack of the United Kingdom back in 1606.

Origin of languages
Having emerged from the dialects and vocabulary of Germanic peoples; Angles, Saxons, and Jutes who settled in Britain in the 5th century CE, English today is a constantly changing language that has been influenced by a plethora of different cultures and languages, such as Latin, French, Dutch, and Afrikaans.

Etymology
The name "England" is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means "land of the Angles". The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages.

History
About 4,500 BC farming was introduced into what is now England. Using stone axes the farmers began clearing the forests that covered England. They grew crops of wheat and barley and they raised herds of cattle, pigs, and sheep. However as well as farming, they also hunted animals such as deer, horse, and wild boar and smaller animals such as beavers, badgers, and hares. They also gathered fruit and nuts. At the same time, the early farmers mined flint for making tools. They dug shafts, some of them 15 meters (50 feet) deep. They used deer antlers as picks and oxen shoulder blades as shovels. They also made pottery vessels but they still wore clothes made from skins. They erected simple wooden huts to live in.

Moreover, the early farmers made elaborate tombs for their dead. They dug burial chambers then lined them with wood or stone. Over them, they created mounds of earth called barrows. They also made mounds of stones called cairns. From about 2,500 BC in what is now England, the Neolithic (new stone age) farmers made circular monuments called henges. At first, they were simple ditches with stones or wooden poles erected in them. The most famous henge is, of course, Stonehenge. It began as a simple ditch with an internal bank of earth. Outside the entrance stood the Heel Stone. The famous circles of stones were erected hundreds of years later. Stonehenge was altered and added to over a thousand-year period from 2250 BC to 1250 BC before it was finished.

At any rate, about 2,000 BC English society was changed by the invention of Bronze. Metal artifacts appeared in England as early as 2,700 BC although it is believed they were imported. By about 2,000 BC bronze was being made in England. The Bronze Age people also rode horses and they were the first people in England to weave cloth. Bronze age women held their hair with bone pins and they wore crescent-shaped necklaces.

In the late Bronze Age (1,000 BC-650 BC) forts were built on hills so warfare was, it seems, becoming common. This may have been because the population was rising and fertile land was becoming harder to obtain.

Meanwhile, the Bronze Age people continued to build barrows. The dead were buried with useful artifacts. Presumably, the living believed the dead would need these in the afterlife.

Bronze Age people lived in round wooden huts with thatched roofs but nothing is known about their society or how it was organised. However, there were almost certainly different classes at that time. Tin and copper were exported from Britain along with animal hides. Jet and amber were imported for the rich.

Then about 650 BC iron was introduced into England by a people called the Celts and the first swords were made. Warfare was common during the Iron Age and many hill forts (fortified settlements) were built at that time. (Although there were also many open villages and farms). The Celts fought from horses or light wooden chariots. They threw spears and fought with swords. The Celts had wooden shields and some wore chainmail.

Most of the Celts were farmers although were also many skilled craftsmen. Some Celts were blacksmiths (working with iron), bronze smiths, carpenters, leather workers, and potters. Celtic craftsmen also made elaborate jewelry of gold and precious stones. Furthermore, objects like swords and shields were often finely decorated. The Celts decorated metal goods with enamel. The Celts also knew how to make glass and they made glass beads. The Celts grew crops in rectangular fields. They raised pigs, sheep, and cattle. They stored grain in pits lined with stone or wicker and sealed with clay. The Celts also brewed beer from barley.

In 55 BC when Julius Caesar led an expedition to Britain. Caesar returned in 54 BC. Both times he defeated the Celts but he did not stay. Both times the Romans withdrew after the Celts agreed to pay an annual tribute. The Romans invaded Britain again in 43 AD under Emperor Claudius. The Roman invasion force consisted of about 20,000 legionaries and about 20,000 auxiliary soldiers from the provinces of the Roman Empire. Aulus Plautius led them. The Romans landed somewhere in Southeast England (the exact location is unknown) and quickly prevailed against the Celtic army. The Celts could not match the discipline and training of the Roman army. A battle was fought on the River Medway, ending in Celtic defeat and withdrawal. The Romans chased them over the River Thames into Essex and within months of landing in England, the Romans had captured the Celtic hill fort on the site of Colchester.

Meanwhile, other Roman forces marched into Sussex, where the local tribe, the Atrebates were friendly and offered no resistance. The Roman army then marched into the territory of another tribe, the Durotriges, in Dorset and southern Somerset. Everywhere the Romans prevailed and that year 11 Celtic kings surrendered to Claudius. (Normally if a Celtic king surrendered the Romans allowed him to remain as a puppet ruler). By 47 AD the Romans were in control of England from the River Humber to the Estuary of the River Severn. However, the war was not over. The Silures in South Wales and the Ordovices of North Wales continued to harass the Romans. Fighting between the Welsh tribes and the Romans continued for years.

Meanwhile, the Iceni tribe of East Anglia rebelled. At first, the Romans allowed them to keep their kings and have some autonomy. However, the Romans easily crushed it. In the ensuing years, the Romans alienated the Iceni by imposing heavy taxes. Then, when the king of the Iceni died he left his kingdom partly to his wife, Boudicca and partly to Emperor Nero. Soon, however, Nero wanted the kingdom all for himself. His men treated the Iceni very badly and they provoked rebellion. This time a large part of the Roman army was fighting in Wales and the rebellion was, at first, successful. Led by Boudicca the Celts burned Colchester, St Albans and London. However, the Romans rushed forces to deal with the rebellion. Although the Romans were outnumbered their superior discipline and tactics secured total victory.

After the rebellion was crushed the Celts of what is now southern and eastern England settled down and gradually accepted Roman rule. Then in 71-74 AD, the Romans conquered the north of what is now England. In 122-126 AD Emperor Hadrian built a great wall across the northern frontier of Roman Britain to keep out the people the Romans called the Picts.

By the middle of the 3rd century, the Roman Empire was in decline. In the latter half of the 3rd century, Saxons from Germany began raiding the east coast of Roman Britain. The Romans built a chain of forts along the coast, which they called the Saxon shore. The forts were commanded by an official called the Count of the Saxon Shore and they contained both infantry and cavalry. Then in 286, an admiral named Carausius seized power in Britain. For 7 years he ruled Britain as an emperor until Allectus, his finance minister, assassinated him. Allectus then ruled Britain until 296 when Constantius, Emperor of the Western Roman Empire invaded. Britain was then taken back into the Roman fold.

In the 4th century, the Roman Empire in the west went into serious economic and political decline. The populations of towns fell. Public baths and amphitheaters went out of use. In 367 Scots from Northern Ireland, Picts from Scotland and Saxons all raided Roman Britain. They overran Hadrian's Wall and killed the Count of the Saxon Shore. However, the Romans sent a man named Theodosius with reinforcements to restore order. Yet the last Roman troops left Britain in 407. In 410 the leaders of the Romano-Celts sent a letter to the Roman Emperor Honorius, appealing for help. However, he had no troops to spare and he told the Britons they must defend themselves.

Roman Britain split into separate kingdoms but the Romano-Celts continued to fight the Saxon raiders. Roman civilization slowly broke down. People stopped using coins and returned to barter. Roman towns continued to be inhabited until the mid-5th century. Then town life came to an end. Roman civilization in the countryside also faded away.

Life in Roman Britain

By the 5th century the Romano-Celts had broken up into separate kingdoms but a single leader called the Superbus Tyrannus had emerged. At that time and possibly earlier they were hiring Germanic peoples as mercenaries. According to tradition, the Superbus Tyrannus brought Jutes to protect his realm from Scots (from Northern Ireland) and Picts (from Scotland). He was also afraid the Romans might invade Britain and make it part of the Empire again. The Superbus Tyrannus installed the Jutish leader, Hengist, as king of Kent. In return, the Jutes were supposed to protect Britain.

However, after about 7 years the Jutes and the Romano-Celts fell out. They fought a battle at Crayford and the Jutes won a decisive victory. The war went on for several more years but the Celts were unable to dislodge the Jutes. In the late 5th century Saxons landed in Sussex and after about 15 years the Saxons had conquered all of Sussex. They gave the county its name. It was the kingdom of the South Saxons.

Meanwhile, at the end of the 5th century or the very beginning of the 6th century, more Jutes landed in eastern Hampshire and the Isle of Wight. At the same time, Saxons landed in western Hampshire. They founded the kingdom of Wessex (the West Saxons). Then in the late 5th century a great leader and general arose among the Celts. We know him as Arthur. Very little is known about him but he defeated the Saxons in several battles. His victories culminated in the battle of Mount Badon, about 500 AD. (We do not know exactly where the battle took place). The Saxons were crushed and their advance was halted for decades.

Meanwhile, in the early 6th century the West Saxons, of western Hampshire, annexed the Jutes of eastern Hampshire. About 530 they also took over the Isle of Wight. Then in 552, the West Saxons won a great victory somewhere near modern Salisbury and they captured what is now Wiltshire. In 577 they won another great victory. This time they captured Bath, Cirencester and Gloucester. They also cut off the Celts of southwest England from the Celts of Wales.

Meanwhile, in the mid-6th century, other Saxons invaded Essex. (The kingdom of the East Saxons). A people called the Angles landed in East Anglia. Obviously, they gave East Anglia its name. They also gave England its name (Angle-land). Other Angles landed in Yorkshire. Also in the later 6th century Saxons sailed up the Thames and landed in what is now Berkshire. They gave Middlesex its name. (The land of the middle Saxons). They also landed on the south bank of the River Thames. They called the area suth ridge, which means south bank. In time the name changed to Surrey.

So by the late 6th century, eastern England was in the hands of Angles and Saxons. In the 7th century, they continued their relentless advance. In 656 the Saxons of the East Midlands won a battle on the River Wye and captured the West Midlands. Further South in 658 the West Saxons won a great battle and drove the Celts back to the River Parrett in Somerset. In 664 they won yet another battle. This time they captured Dorset.

By about 670 AD the West Saxons had captured Exeter. Then in 710 Saxons from eastern Somerset invaded western Somerset. At the same time, Saxons from southeast Devon marched north and west. The two groups advanced in a pincer movement and soon occupied Devon and western Somerset. However, the Saxons never gained effective control of Cornwall. So Cornwall kept its own Cornish language.

By the 7th century, there were 9 kingdoms in what is now England. In the south, there were Kent, Sussex, and Wessex (Hampshire and Wiltshire). In the early 9th century Wessex gained control of Sussex and Kent. Eastern England was divided into Essex, East Anglia and a kingdom called Lindsey roughly modern Lincolnshire. The Midlands was ruled by a kingdom called Mercia. In the late 8th century a great king called Offa ruled Mercia. He built a famous dike (ditch) to keep out the Welsh. He also absorbed the kingdom of Lindsey (roughly Lincolnshire).

In 600 the north was divided into two kingdoms. Deira (roughly modern Yorkshire) and Bernicia further north. However, in 605, the two were united to form one powerful kingdom called Northumbria. So by the mid-9th century, England was divided into just four kingdoms, Northumbria in the north, Mercia, East Anglia in the east and Wessex in the south.

In 596 Pope Gregory sent a party of about 40 men led by Augustine to Kent. They arrived in 597. Aethelbert permitted the monks to preach and in time he was converted. Furthermore, his nephew, Saeberht, the king of Essex was also converted.

Meanwhile, in 627 King Edwin of Northumbria (the North of England) and all his nobles were baptized. (He may have been influenced by his wife, Ethelburga, who was a Christian). Most of his subjects followed. A man named Paulinus became the first Saxon Bishop of York. Paulinus also began converting the kingdom of Lindsey (Lincolnshire).

However, things did not go smoothly in Northumbria. King Edwin was killed at the battle of Hatfield in 632 and afterward, most of Northumbria reverted to paganism. They had to be converted all over again by Celtic monks from Scotland.

Further south in 630 a Christian called Sigebert became King of East Anglia. He asked the Archbishop of Canterbury to send men to help convert his people. Meanwhile, Pope Honorius sent a man named Birinus to convert the West Saxons (who lived in Hampshire). Missionaries also preached in the kingdom of Mercia (The Midlands) In 653 King Penda of Mercia was converted and baptized and gradually the realm was converted. The last part of England to be converted to Christianity was Sussex. It was converted after 680 by St. Wilfrid. Finally, by the end of the 7th century, all of England was at least nominally Christian.

In 793 the Vikings raided a monastery at Lindisfarne (northeast England). There followed a respite until 835 when the Danes descended on the Isle of Sheppey in Kent. Although the Viking raiders were fearsome they were not invincible. In 836 the Danes joined forces with the Celts of Cornwall. However, they were defeated by Egbert, king of Wessex, at Hingston Down. Nevertheless, the Danes continued raiding in England. In 840 a force of Saxons from Hampshire crushed a Danish force at Southampton. However the same year Saxons from Dorset were defeated by the Danes at Portland.

In 841 the Danes ravaged Kent, East Anglia and what is now Lincolnshire. In 842 they sacked Southampton. Further Viking raids occurred in 843 and 845. In the latter year, the Saxons defeated the Danes in a battle at the mouth of the River Parrett in Somerset.

Then in 850-51, the Vikings spent the winter of the Isle of Thanet. In the spring they attacked the Mercians and defeated them in battle. However, they were later defeated by an army from Wessex. In 854 another Danish force wintered on the Isle of Sheppey before raiding England. There then followed a relatively peaceful period in which the Vikings raided England only once.

However, the Danes eventually stopped raiding and turned to conquest. In the autumn of 865, an army of Danes landed in East Anglia. In the following year, 866, they captured York. The Northumbrians attacked the Vikings occupying York in 867 but they were defeated. The Danes then installed a man named Egbert as puppet ruler of Northumbria. The Danes then marched south and they spent the winter of 867 in Nottingham. In 869 they marched to Thetford in East Anglia. In the spring of 870, they crushed an army of East Anglians. The Danes were now in control of Northumbria, part of Mercia and East Anglia. They then turned their attention to Wessex. At the end of 870, they captured Reading. The men of Wessex won a victory at Ashdown. However, the Danes then won two battles, at Basing and at an unidentified location.

Then in the spring of 871, Alfred became king of Wessex. He became known as Alfred the Great. The Saxons and the Danes fought several battles during 871 but the Danes were unable to break Saxon resistance so they made a peace treaty and the Danes turned their attention to the other parts of England. In 873 they attacked the unoccupied part of Mercia. The Mercian king fled and was replaced by a puppet ruler. Afterward, Wessex remained the only independent Saxon kingdom.

In 875 a Danish army invaded Wessex again. However, they were unable to conquer Wessex so in 877 they withdrew to Gloucester. In 878 they launched a surprise attack on Chippenham. King Alfred was forced to flee and hide in the marshes of Athelney. Alfred fought a guerrilla war for some months then took on the Danes in battle. The Danes were routed at the battle of Edington. Afterward, Guthrum, the Danish leader, and his men were baptized and made a treaty with Alfred. They split southern and central England between them. Guthrum took London, East Anglia and all the territory east of the old Roman road, Watling Street. Later this Danish kingdom became known as the Danelaw. Alfred took the land west of Watling Street and southern England. However, in 886 Alfreds men captured London.

Moreover, the wars with the Danes were not over. In 892 some Danes who had been attacking France turned their attention to Kent. In 893 the Saxons defeated them and they withdrew into Essex (part of the Danelaw). Meanwhile, in 893 another group of Danes sailed to Devon and laid siege to Exeter. They withdrew in 894. They sailed to Sussex and landed near Chichester. This time the local Saxons marched out and utterly defeated them in battle. War with the Danes continued in 895-896. Danes from the Danelaw marched into what is now Shropshire but they were forced to withdraw. There then followed a few years of peace. During his reign, Alfred reorganized the defense of his realm. He created a fleet of ships to fight the Danes at sea. (It was the first English navy). He also created a network of forts across his kingdom called burhs. Finally, Alfred died in 899. And he was succeeded by his son Edward.

In the mid-9th century, there were 4 Saxon kingdoms, Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia and Wessex. By the end of the century, there was the only one left, Wessex. In the 10th century, Wessex gradually expanded and took over all the Danish territory. So a single united England was created. The process began under King Edward. The treaty of Wedmore in 879 gave King Alfred control over western Mercia. However, the people of that area still saw themselves as Mercians, not Saxons or Englishmen. In time they merged with the people of Wessex. Meanwhile, in 915-918, King Egbert defeated the Danes of Eastern England. He took control of all England south of the River Humber. By 954 all of England was ruled by Alfred the Greats descendants.

In the late 10th century England enjoyed a respite from Danish raids. England was peaceful although a young king, Edward, was murdered at Corfe in Dorset in 978. His brother Aethelred replaced him. Despite this, in the late 10th century there was a religious revival in England. A man named Dunstan (c.1020-1088) was Archbishop of Canterbury. He reformed the monasteries. Many new churches and monasteries were built.

Then in 980, the Danes started raiding England again. The Saxons paid the Danes to stop raiding and return home. However the amount the Danes demanded increased each time. In 991 they were paid 10,000 pounds to go home. In 1002 they were paid 24,000 pounds in 1007 they were paid 36,000 pounds. England was drained of its resources by paying these huge sums of money called Danegeld (Dane gold).

King Aethelred or Ethelred also, stupidly, enraged the Danes by ordering the massacre of Danes living in his realm. He was persuaded they were plotting against him and he ordered his people to kill them on 13 November 1002. This terrible crime, the St Brice's Day Massacre ensured that the Danes had a personal hostility towards him.

Eventually, the Danes turned to conquest. In 1013 the Danish king Sweyn invaded England. His fleet sailed up the River Humber and along the River Trent to Gainsborough. The people of northern England welcomed him. Swein marched south and captured more and more of England. King Ethelred fled abroad. Swein was on the verge of becoming king of England when he died in February 1014. Incredibly some of the English invited Ethelred back (provided he agreed to rule more justly). When he arrived the Danes withdrew. However, they were soon back. In 1015 Swein's son Canute or Cnut led an expedition to England and occupied southern England. Ethelred finally died in April 1016.

There was then a struggle between Canute and Ethelred's son Edmund, known as Edmund Ironside. The people of the Danelaw accepted Canute as king but London supported Edmund. England was split between the two contestants. They fought at Ashingdon in Essex. Canute won the battle but he was not strong enough to capture all of England. Instead, he made peace with Edmund. Canute took the north and midlands while Edmund took the south. However, Edmund conveniently died in November 1016 and Canute became king of all England. Canute turned out to be a good king. Under his rule trade grew rapidly and England became richer. When Canute died in 1035 England was stable and prosperous. Canute also divided England into four Earldoms, Northumbria, East Anglia, Mercia, and Wessex. Each earl was very powerful.

Unfortunately, after Canute's death, there were seven years of fighting over who would rule England. Then in 1042 Edward, known as Edward the Confessor became king. During his reign, which lasted until 1066 England grew increasingly prosperous. Trade grew and English towns flourished. England was stable and well-governed. Edward also built Westminster Abbey. However, Edward's mother was Norman and Norman influence was increasing in England. The next king, Harold, was to be the last Saxon king.

Edward the Confessor died without leaving an heir. William Duke of Normandy claimed that Edward once promised him he would be the next king of England. He also claimed that Harold had sworn an oath to support him after Edwards death. If Harold ever swore such an oath it was only because he had been shipwrecked off the Norman coast and was coerced into swearing an oath. In Anglo Saxon times the crown was not necessarily hereditary. A body of men called the Witan played a role in choosing the next king. Nobody could become king without the Witans support. In January 1066, after Edward's death, the Witan chose Harold, Earl of Wessex, to be the next king. Duke William of Normandy would have to obtain the crown by force.

However, William was not the only contestant for the throne. Harald Hardrada, king of Norway, also claimed it. He sailed to Yorkshire with 10,000 men in 300 ships. The Earls of Northumbria and Mercia attacked him but they were defeated. However, King Harold marched north with another army. He took the Norwegians by surprise and routed them at Stamford Bridge on 25 September 1066. That ended any threat from Norway.

Meanwhile, the Normans built a fleet of ships to transport their men and horses across the Channel. They landed in Sussex at the end of September. the Normans then plundered English farms for food. They also burned houses. Harold rushed to the south coast. He arrived with his men on 13 October.

The Anglo Saxon army was made up of the housecarls, the king's bodyguard. They fought on foot with axes. They wore coats of chainmail called hauberks. Kite shaped shields protected them. However, most Anglo Saxon soldiers had no armor only axes and spears and round shields. They fought on foot. Their normal tactic was to form a 'shield-wall' by standing side by side. However, the Anglo Saxons had no archers.

The Norman army was much more up to date. Norman knights fought on horseback. They wore chainmail and carried kite-shaped shields. They fought with lances, swords, and maces. Some Normans fought on foot protected by chainmail, helmets, and shields. The Normans also had a force of archers.

The battle of Hastings was fought on 14 October 1066. The Anglo Saxons were assembled on Senlac Hill. The Normans formed below them. Both armies were divided into 3 wings. William also divided his army into 3 ranks. At the front were archers, in the middle soldiers on foot then mounted knights.

The Norman archers advanced and loosed their arrows but they had little effect. The foot soldiers advanced but they were repulsed. The mounted knights then charged but they were unable to break the Anglo Saxon shield wall. Then the Anglo Saxons made a disastrous mistake. Foot soldiers and knights from Brittany fled. Some of the Anglo Saxons broke formation and followed them. The Normans then turned and attacked the pursuing Anglo Saxons. They annihilated them. According to a writer called William of Poitiers, the Anglo Saxons made the same mistake twice. Seeing Normans flee for a second time some men followed. The Normans turned and destroyed them. The battle was now lost. Harold was killed with all his housecarls. The surviving Saxons melted away. William captured Dover and Canterbury. Finally, he captured London and he was crowned king of England on 25 December 1066. The Anglo Saxon era was over. William, Duke of Normandy, was crowned King of England on 25 December 1066. However, at first, his position was by no means secure. He had only several thousand men to control a population of about 2 million. Furthermore, Swein, king of Denmark also claimed the throne of England. At first, the Normans were hated invaders and they had to hold down a resentful Saxon population.

One method the Normans used to control the Saxons was building castles. They erected a mound of earth called a motte. On top, they erected a wooden stockade. Around the bottom, they erected another stockade. The area within was called the bailey so it was called a motte and bailey castle. The Normans soon began building stone castles. In 1078 William began building the Tower of London. William stayed in Normandy from March to December 1067. When he returned to England his first task was to put down an uprising in the Southwest. He laid siege to Exeter. Eventually, the walled town surrendered on honorable terms.

Although Southern England was now under Norman control the Midlands and North were a different matter. In 1068 William marched north through Warwick and Nottingham to York. The people of York submitted to him- for the moment and William returned to London via Cambridge and York.

However, in January 1069 the people of Yorkshire and Northumberland rebelled. William rushed north and crushed the rebellion However the rising in the north fanned the flames of rebellion elsewhere. There were local risings in Somerset and Dorset. There was also a rebellion in the West Midlands. Furthermore, a Saxon called Edgar, the grandson of Edmund Ironside, a previous Saxon ruler led a force of Irishmen to North Devon. However local Norman commanders crushed the uprisings and drove out the Irish.

It was not over yet. In the autumn of 1069, King Sweyn of Denmark sent an expedition to England. When the Danes arrived in Yorkshire the local people rose in rebellion once again. William marched north and captured York. The Danes withdrew from northern England. This time William adopted a scorched earth policy. William was determined there would not be any more rebellions in the north. In 1069-1070 his men burned houses, crops, and tools between the Humber and Durham. They also slaughtered livestock. There followed years of famine in the north when many people starved to death. This terrible crime was called the harrying of the north and it took the north of England years to recover.

Meanwhile, the Danes sailed south. They plundered Peterborough and took the Isle of Ely as a base. Many Saxons joined the Danes. These Saxon rebels were led by a man called Hereward the Wake.

However, in June 1070 King William made a treaty with King Sweyn and the Danes left. The Saxons kept on fighting in the Fens but by 1071 they were forced to surrender. Hereward escaped. William was now in control of all of England

After the Norman Conquest, almost all Saxon nobles lost their land. William confiscated it and gave it to his own followers. They held their land in return for providing soldiers for the king for so many days a year. William also changed the church in England. In those days the church was rich and powerful and the king needed its support. William replaced senior Saxon clergymen with men loyal to himself. Lanfranc, an Italian, replaced Stigand, the Saxon Archbishop of Canterbury. (With the agreement of the Pope). Lanfranc then deposed Saxon bishops and abbots and replaced them with Normans. Among the lower ranks of society, there were also changes. In the late Saxon times, the peasants were losing their freedom. This process continued under the Normans. On the other hand, slavery declined. (It died out by the middle of the 12th century).

In 1085 William decided to carry out a huge survey of his kingdom to find out how much wealth it contained. The result was the Domesday Book of 1086. William died in 1087 and he was succeeded by his son, also called William (he is sometimes called William Rufus because of his reddish complexion). His brother Robert became Duke of Normandy. William the Conqueror was a ruthless man. However, a writer of the time did say this about him; 'he kept good law'. The eleventh century was a lawless age when a strong ruler who kept order was admired.

William Rufus

Rufus was definitely not a supporter of the church and was deeply unpopular with the clergy. Among other things, they criticized him and his courtiers for having long hair. (In his father's day short hair was the fashion). The clergy thought long hair was effeminate.

However, in many ways, Rufus was a capable king. Under him, the barons were in an awkward position because most of them held land in Normandy as well as in England. Many of them wanted a single man to rule both. So in 1088, there was a rebellion in eastern England. The rebels hoped to dispose of Rufus and make his brother Robert ruler of both England and Normandy. However, Rufus crushed the rebellion. A second rebellion in 1095 was also crushed.

Meanwhile, Rufus captured the area we now called Cumbria from the Scots (until his reign it was part of Scotland). Rufus also forced the Scottish king to submit to him as his feudal overlord. William Rufus was hit by an arrow while hunting in the New Forest. We will never know for certain if it was an accident or (as seems more likely) he was murdered.

Following the 'accidental' death of William Rufus, his brother Henry seized the royal treasure in Winchester and was crowned king of England. His brother Robert became Duke of Normandy. Henry, I was born in 1068 and he was well educated. When he seized the throne he issued a charter promising to rule justly. He also gained favor with his Saxon subjects by marrying Edith, a descendant of Edmund Ironside. Very importantly he also had the support of the church.

Henry proved to be a capable monarch. He also had many illegitimate children but he only had one legitimate son called William. In 1119 the king of France recognized William as the heir to the English throne and heir to the Dukedom of Normandy. However, William drowned in 1120 when his ship, the white ship, sank. Henry was left without an heir. Before he died in 1135 Henry made the barons promise to accept his daughter Matilda as queen.

However when Henry died in 1135 his nephew Stephen also claimed the throne and many barons supported him. Matilda was abroad when her father died and Stephen was crowned king of England. Yet Matilda would not give up her claim to the throne and she had many supporters too. As a result, a long civil war began which went on till 1154. These years were called the 'nineteen long winters'. Fighting only ended when, shortly before his death, Stephen agreed to recognize Matilda's son Henry as his heir. Following Stephen's death in 1154 Matilda's son became King Henry II. He proved to be a strong and capable ruler.

Henry II was the first Plantagenet king. He was born at Le Mans in France in 1133. He was a highly educated man known for his violent temper. However, Henry did not just rule England. He also ruled large parts of France. From 1150 he was Duke of Normandy. From 1151 he was Count of Anjou. By marrying Eleanor of Aquitaine he became the Lord of that part of France. Later he also became ruler of Brittany. As an adult, Henry spent more time in France than he did in England.

Henry proved to be a strong king. During the long civil war, many barons had built illegal castles. Henry had them demolished. Furthermore, Henry reformed the law. He appointed judges who traveled around the country holding trials called assizes for serious offenses. However, clergymen had the right to be tried in their own courts. The penalties were often very lenient. Henry felt that was unfair and he tried to force the clergy to allow themselves to be tried in his courts. Not surprisingly they resisted. So Henry made his friend Thomas Becket Archbishop of Canterbury. However, as soon as Becket was appointed he refused to submit to the king's wishes.

In 1170, while Henry was in Normandy he lost his temper and shouted 'will no-one rid me of this turbulent priest?'. Four knights took him at his word and they went to England and killed Becket in Canterbury Cathedral. Public opinion was horrified by the murder. Eventually, Henry was forced to do penance. He walked barefoot through Canterbury while monks lashed his bare back.

Henry also had trouble from his sons because he refused to give them any real power. In 1173-74 Henry faced a rebellion by his four eldest sons assisted by their mother. Henry put down the rebellions and he forgave his sons. However, his wife was held a prisoner for the rest of Henry's reign. In 1189 Henry faced another rebellion. This time his youngest son, John joined the rebellion. That broke his heart and Henry died in 1189.

Richard I was born in 1157. In his own time, he was a popular king because he was a successful warrior. However, he neglected his kingdom to fight in foreign wars.

Saladin had captured Jerusalem in 1187 and Richard was determined to win it back. He left England as soon as he could in 1190. He arrived in the Holy Land in 1191. Richard had some success but he failed to capture Jerusalem, the main prize. In 1192 he made a treaty with Saladin. However, on his journey home, he was imprisoned by the Duke of Austria. Richard's subjects were forced to pay a huge ransom to release him (in 1194). After his release, Richard returned to England but he soon left for Normandy. He never saw England again. While besieging a castle Richard was hit by a crossbow bolt. He died in 1199 and was followed by his brother John.

King John proved to be a failure. Between 1202 and 1204 the king of France managed to capture most of the lands in France held by John. Afterward, John was given the nickname soft sword. He also, in 1205, began an argument with the Pope over who should be the new Archbishop of Canterbury, John's choice or the Pope's. As a result in 1208, the Pope place England under an interdict, which meant that religious services could not be held. In 1209 he excommunicated John. Finally, in 1213, John was forced to submit.

Meanwhile, John alienated many of his subjects. They claimed that he ruled like a tyrant ignoring feudal law. He was accused of extorting money from people, selling offices, increasing taxes and creating new ones whenever he wished. Matters came to a head after John tried to recapture his lost lands in France in 1214 but failed. The baron's patience was exhausted. Finally in 1215 civil war broke out. In June 1215 John was forced to accept a charter known as Magna Carta. The charter was meant to stop the abuses. It stated that the traditional rights and privileges of the church must be upheld. It also protected the rights and privileges of the aristocracy. Merchants who lived in towns were also mentioned. However ordinary people were overlooked.

Yet Magna Carta did uphold an important principle. English kings could not rule arbitrarily. They had to obey English laws and English customs the same as other men. Furthermore, Magna Carta laid down that no free man could be arrested, imprisoned or dispossessed without the lawful judgment of his peers or without due process of law.

A history of English government

John had no intention of keeping the terms of Magna Carta so he appealed to the Pope. On 24 August 1215, the Pope declared Magan Carta invalid. The result was a civil war in England. barons invited a French prince to come and rule England. However, John conveniently died on October 1216. After his death, Magna Carta was reissued.

John was succeeded by his nephew Henry. He was crowned in great haste in Gloucester by the Bishop of Winchester. (The Archbishop of Canterbury was in Rome). Henry III was only 9 years old in 1216 and at first two regents ruled on his behalf. The first problem was the French prince Louis, who had been invited by rebel barons to come and be king of England. However, in 1217 Louis was forced to leave.

Henry began to rule in his own right in 1227 and he soon alienated the barons by ignoring their traditional rights and privileges. Worse, in 1254 the pope was fighting in Sicily. Henry III offered to fund the pope's wars if the pope agreed to let his son, Edmund, become king of Sicily. The pope agreed but Henry failed to provide the promised money.

In 1258 he turned to his barons for help. They were infuriated by his scheming and refused to do anything unless Henry agreed to a new charter known as the Provisions of Oxford. At first, Henry reluctantly agreed but in 1260 he renounced the provisions. Civil war resulted and in 1264 rebels led by Simon de Montfort defeated and captured the king at the battle of Lewes. They also captured his eldest son Edward. Simon de Montfort called a parliament made up of representatives from each county and each borough. It was the first English parliament.

However, Edward escaped and in 1265 he defeated the barons at the Battle of Evesham in Worcestershire. By then Henry was becoming senile so Edward took control of the government until his father's death in 1272. Although he was not a great king politically Henry III was a patron of the arts. He rebuilt Westminster Abbey. Furthermore, during his reign, England's first university, Oxford, was founded.

1297- William Wallace leads a Scottish army against the English in the battle of Stirling Bridge.

1305- William Wallace is executed by the English on charge of treason.

1346- the first major battle of the Hundred Year War begins- the battle of Crecy.

The Hundred Year War was a series of conflicts between France and England that lasted 116 years. England claimed they were entitled to the French throne- this was the source of the conflict.There were 3-5 major battles that took place.

1356- Battle of Poitiers- Hundred Year War continues.

1373- The Anglo- Portuguese Treaty is signed. England and Portugal are now allied. This remains to this day.

1377- Richard ii becomes king.

1381- Wat Tyler leads the Peasant’s Revolt.

1399- Henry IV becomes king

1413- Henry V becomes king

1415- England wins a major victory in the Battle of Agincourt. The Hundred Year War continues.

1453- The last major battle, the Battle of Castillon, of the Hundred Year War begins.

1455- The Wars of the Roses starts between the House of Lancaster and the House of York. They fight for the throne.

1485- The Battle of Bosworth Field. This is the last significant battle of the Wars of the Roses.

Family

 * Wales — Sibling
 * Ireland — Sibling
 * Northern Ireland — Sibling
 * United Kingdom — Child

Friends

 * United Kingdom — "I help and stick by him whenever he needs me... the other countries don't listen and agree with him very often, but, overall, I think he's a nice chap."

Neutral

 * Malta – "It's a bit complicated. We're frenemies (more should be listed on this)."
 * Austria
 * Czech Republic
 * Netherlands
 * Northern Ireland — "People forget you but I guess we also get along. I may not be his neighbour or talk to him all the time, but he seems like a nice friend."
 * Norway
 * Sweden
 * Denmark
 * Canada
 * United States
 * Australia
 * New Zealand
 * Wales — "Eh, we mostly get along. He's on my side always on serious matters. He's also a good neighbour but not as annoying as Scotland."

Enemies

 * Argentina — "Forget about everything. The Falklands are mine!"
 * France — "I will never forget those times where we fought. I don't think we'll ever give up the little enemy we have. But we both don't trust Wales!"
 * P I  I  I  G  S - "We have shared a lot of enmities. But I think Scotland has become an obstacle for you too. The enemy of my enemy is my friend!"
 * Poland
 * Germany
 * Scotland — "We're good a lot of the time but for some reason, it's a reoccurring joke for their people to hate me and I don't like that. He's a somewhat neighbour apart from that, he hasn't stirred up too much trouble since the whole independence fiasco."
 * India and China - "Did you enjoy opium?"

United Kingdom
Depending on the people's headcanon, England is sometimes seen as the "parent" of the United Kingdom along with Scotland because they made a union in 1707. This results in the UK and England sharing a close relationship.
 * This is more popular role-reverse however, and the UK can be seen as England's father more often, showcased as the mature and one most like the UK.
 * Sometimes the British Empire is also seen as the father of all the British Isles. There are many variations. This all depends on your headcanon. Some people see the UK members as siblings instead and often that one is the most depicted.

Nonetheless... England shares a close relationship with the United Kingdom. The United Kingdom has a lot of problems at the moment and out of it all, England seems to be the one running it and sticking around for him and doesn't doubt him at all much, unlike the other isles. England is the most populated part of the United Kingdom. They also share the most stereotypes (tea drinkers, being posh...)

Trivia
WIP

Extra(s)
WIP